A “pledge” may be at least a practical way to understand the function of various formal creeds, such as the Apostles’ Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the like.

It is quite true that reciting such formulas tells no deity anything it does not already know, particularly about its own qualities. However, it does remind congregations of what they think they know about the nature of the divine, and the recitation itself is an expression of the congregation’s own identity.

And therein lies Justinian’s problem: obedience can be enforced, but loyalty can only be inspired.